mechanisms are social practices which are aimed at controlling over-assertive
individuals from boasting their success and traits (e.g. in hunting) and at containing
leaders from exploiting their position. If a leader or a would-be-chief tries to dominate
other group members or misuse his leadership role, group members may tell him that
he makes them laugh (ridicule tactic), they may walk away, disobey or simply ignore
him. Other tactics are to remove, ostracize or expel an over-assertive individual from
the group, and, in extreme cases, execution is also an option (different groups exercise
different techniques, see Boehm 1993, 1999; Kelly 1995: 295-297; Lee 1979: 244-
249, 343-354; Woodburn 1982).
How did egalitarian societies come into being and maintained their social
structure? The most conceivable explanation to the existence of egalitarianism is that
it emerged through a gradual development.
Leadership is necessary for solving
internal conflict resolution, for religious and healing roles, and for decision making in
times of war and peace. Leveling-down mechanisms, thus, do not reverse the
hierarchy between a leader and his group; the mechanisms simply keep the social
structure as close to flattened as possible. Leaders are restricted and checked as not to
extend their powers beyond what is necessary by the circumstances (see Erdal and
Whiten 1994; de Waal 1996: 128).
Many examples demonstrate that leaders of foraging bands are tacitly or
explicitly seeking to enhance their powers (Boehm 1993, 1999; Kelley 1995: chapter
8). The existence of a variety of leveling-down mechanisms also testifies to the
continuing struggle and efforts of group members to keep their leader and self-
4
A different theory was proposed by Boehm who relies on the logic of 'group selection' and a
collective logic of decision making. Group selection is a biological theory that explains evolution on
the level of groups. The unit of analysis is the whole group and not the individual. To be sure pressures
also work on the group as a whole. However, this theory has been proved (already in the late 50's) to be
impossible in explaining the evolution of individual traits. A revival of group selection theory has been
advanced by Sober and Wilson (2000) on which Boehm relies for his analysis.
5
Boehm admits that "it is possible that egalitarianism advanced in stages, with subordinates gradually,
over many millennia, gaining more control until the alpha role was effectively suppressed… This
process could have begun with Homo erectus, and conceivably even earlier…" (1999: 196). Still,
Boehm does not give due consideration to this possibility as an alternative theory.
8
Convention