26
acceptance will mask a broad range of interpretations and actions, with both sides using the norm to cover
widely varying actions.
74
Conclusion
This paper has raised questions about the transnational contention and constructivist literatures
based on the observation, little noted by most scholars, that NGOs and movements typically face opposition
in their campaigns, not just from recalcitrant states but also from countermobilizations. To build on these
insights will require detailed empirical work on movement/countermovement interactions in the context of
real political campaigns. For social movement scholars, focusing only on interactions between movements
on the one hand and state and interstate institutions on the other affords an incomplete picture of
transnational contentious politics. Movement/countermovement interactions occur on an ongoing basis and
constitute important aspects of contentious politics in their own right. They shape the demands of
movements, suggesting new strategies and targets as well as giving clues about the limitations of possibility
within a particular opportunity structure.
For scholars in the constructivist approach, who argue that NGOs and norms are fundamentally
“restructuring world politics,” taking cognizance of countermobilizations is equally important. While such
“restructuring” may in fact be occurring, it is not happening without a fight. The fight concerns not only
the substance of political issues such as global warming and human rights. It also and more fundamentally
concerns the rules by which these battles will be fought and who can participate in the fray. The boom in
NGOs and transnational mobilization in recent years may have created permanent new players on the
international scene. But it does not guarantee that these groups will continue to exert influence.
73
The Panel has solicited views from civil society actors worldwide using list-servs, NGO and civil society
organization networks, and the Web. See http://www.irancsos.net/questionnaire.htm.
74
Michael Glennon documents numerous instances of this practice concerning the rules—and realities—of
the international use of force regime. Glennon, op. cit.
Convention