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Adolescent At-Risk Behaviors: A Multi-Level Analysis of Family, Neighborhood and School Factors Affecting Adolescent Behavioral Outcomes
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have added students’ zip codes to these data. Our data file includes 2,172 residential zip codes with valid demographic data from the 1990 U.S. Census. Our sub-sample of students nested within zip codes, with an average of seven students per zip code. In turn, zip codes nested within schools, with an average of seven zip codes per school. We recognize that zip codes are not ideal indicators of neighborhoods. A preferred measure would be census tracts, which are smaller than zip codes. Unfortunately, only zip code data are available for the NELS. However, other studies examining the effects of neighborhood characteristics on various outcomes have used zip codes (Sucoff & Upchurch, 1998). In fact, according to Sampson, neighborhood effects are evident regardless of the manner in which neighborhoods are defined: “…Empirical results have not varied much with the operational unit of analysis. The ecological stratification of local communities...is a robust phenomenon that emerges at multiple levels of geography, whether local community areas, census tracts or other ‘neighborhood’ units” (1998). Despite the difficulties of the neighborhood indicator, other features of the NELS data set—in particular, its high variability in the neighborhood context and the relatively large cluster sizes of zip codes—offer unique advantages for this research. Furthermore, the cluster sizes for zip codes are generally large enough to warrant use of hierarchical models. The imperfect measure of neighborhoods is expected to produce very conservative estimates of neighborhood effects.
INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
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Parental educational practices (NELS eighth grade parent survey): educational expectations for student; academic communication with the student; academic/behavioral supervision of the student; parent-school contacts; participation in parent-teacher organizations; provision of out-of-school learning opportunities (music and dance lessons, museum visits).
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Individual student characteristics (NELS eighth grade student and parent data): Social background [SES composite computed by NCES, race/ethnicity (African American, Latino and white or Asian American), mother’s work status (working full-time or not)] and school-related behaviors in the eighth grade (a school attendance composite of students’ frequency of cutting classes, skipping school and coming late to school and an academic engagement composite of students’ frequency of going to class without homework, books, paper and pencil).
3 Neighborhood
characteristics (U.S. Census data). We use several 1990
Census variables at the zip code level: a scale of neighborhood disadvantage (composite of percent female-headed households; percent males unemployed; percent on welfare; percent below the poverty level), percent Latino, percent African American, percent of 15 to 19 year olds who have dropped out of school.
4 School
characteristics
(NELS
tenth grade school survey): urban,
suburban or rural location, student body composition, student-teacher ratio, school size, the degree to which school absenteeism and violence are problems at the school, and an indicator of academic press [a
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| | Authors: Beveridge, Andrew. and Catsambis, Sophia. |
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have added students’ zip codes to these data. Our data file includes 2,172 residential zip
codes with valid demographic data from the 1990 U.S. Census. Our sub-sample of
students nested within zip codes, with an average of seven students per zip code. In turn,
zip codes nested within schools, with an average of seven zip codes per school. We
recognize that zip codes are not ideal indicators of neighborhoods. A preferred measure
would be census tracts, which are smaller than zip codes. Unfortunately, only zip code
data are available for the NELS. However, other studies examining the effects of
neighborhood characteristics on various outcomes have used zip codes (Sucoff &
Upchurch, 1998). In fact, according to Sampson, neighborhood effects are evident
regardless of the manner in which neighborhoods are defined: “…Empirical results have
not varied much with the operational unit of analysis. The ecological stratification of
local communities...is a robust phenomenon that emerges at multiple levels of geography,
whether local community areas, census tracts or other ‘neighborhood’ units” (1998).
Despite the difficulties of the neighborhood indicator, other features of the NELS data
set—in particular, its high variability in the neighborhood context and the relatively large
cluster sizes of zip codes—offer unique advantages for this research. Furthermore, the
cluster sizes for zip codes are generally large enough to warrant use of hierarchical
models. The imperfect measure of neighborhoods is expected to produce very
conservative estimates of neighborhood effects.
INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
1
Parental educational practices (NELS eighth grade parent survey):
educational expectations for student; academic communication with the
student; academic/behavioral supervision of the student; parent-school
contacts; participation in parent-teacher organizations; provision of out-
of-school learning opportunities (music and dance lessons, museum
visits).
2
Individual student characteristics (NELS eighth grade student and parent
data): Social background [SES composite computed by NCES,
race/ethnicity (African American, Latino and white or Asian American),
mother’s work status (working full-time or not)] and school-related
behaviors in the eighth grade (a school attendance composite of students’
frequency of cutting classes, skipping school and coming late to school
and an academic engagement composite of students’ frequency of going
to class without homework, books, paper and pencil).
3 Neighborhood
characteristics (U.S. Census data). We use several 1990
Census variables at the zip code level: a scale of neighborhood
disadvantage (composite of percent female-headed households; percent
males unemployed; percent on welfare; percent below the poverty level),
percent Latino, percent African American, percent of 15 to 19 year olds
who have dropped out of school.
4 School
characteristics
(NELS
tenth grade school survey): urban,
suburban or rural location, student body composition, student-teacher
ratio, school size, the degree to which school absenteeism and violence
are problems at the school, and an indicator of academic press [a
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