extremists, but it nevertheless took place – and after the elections, the IFP joined the ANC and
six other black militias in transforming the South African National Defense Force.
In both
Namibia and El Salvador, peace followed the end of the Cold War and the loss of outside patrons
DDR proceeded in El Salvador under the supervision of the United Nations, as
both the FMLN and Salvadoran military were drawn down in stages. In parallel, the FMLN
insisted on an agreement by which the Salvadoran military would be “purified” of human rights
violators, reduced in size, and placed under firm civilian control. In addition, all paramilitary
forces, such as the Rural Civil Defense, were to be eliminated.
In Nicaragua, after the
Sandinista Front was defeated in the 1989 elections, the United Nations and Venezuela provided
security guarantees for Sandinistas against Contra attacks; Daniel Ortega, the just-defeated
president, remained commander-in-chief.
The United Nations oversaw the transition and
reduction in forces, including disarming the Contras.
After peace was reached in Mozambique
in 1992, the UN again tried to implement DDR before elections were held in 1994 – recalling the
lessons of Angola. This mostly failed, but instead of postponing the elections as they would be
in Liberia, they were held on schedule. Afterwards, the rebel groups disbanded, accepting the
results of elections that shared power among different groups (unlike in Angola).
Likewise,
when white Rhodesians made their peace with Robert Mugabe and accepted black majority rule
in the new Zimbabwe, whites were guaranteed a share of political power, control over the Air
Force, and an escape route to the United Kingdom; all this would be overseen by a
commonwealth and South African force.
13
Lance Eric Englet, “The Continued Transition of the South African National Defense Force: Reserve Force
Integration and Utilization,” Naval Postgraduate School Thesis, December 2000.
14
Bertram, “Reinventing Governments,” pp. 406-8.
15
Paulo S. Wrobel, Managing Arms in Peace Processes: Nicaragua and El Salvador, New York: United Nations,
1997, pp. 115-142.
16
Walter, “Critical Barrier,” pp. 352-3.
17
Paulo S. Wrobel, Nicaragua and El Salvador, pp. 1-36.
18
Bertram, “Reinventing Governments, p. 399; Eric Berman, Managing Arms in Peace Processes: Mozambique,
New York: United Nations, 1996.
19
Walter, “Critical Barrier,” pp. 353.
Convention