8
Disproportionate effect on minorities (particularly African-Americans)
Another criticism of the zero tolerance policies is the obvious disproportionate number of
minority (particularly African American) students effected by the zero tolerance policies.
Despite inconsistencies throughout the literature as to whether or not zero tolerance
policies are actually working, one fact remains consistent: African American students are
over-represented in the use of punitive school discipline and are bearing the brunt of zero
tolerance policies. Though the study was compiled some thirty years ago, the Children’s
Defense fund 1975 study using Office of Civil Rights data found suspension rates for
black students were between two and three times higher than those for whites at the
elementary, middle, and high school levels. Since that time, racial overrepresentation in
regards to school suspensions and expulsions has remained highly consistent. A 1992
study by McFadden found that ‘black students are exposed more frequently to more
punitive disciplinary strategies…and receive few mild disciplinary sanctions when
referred for an infraction (McFadden et al, 246). A national study by the Applied
Research Center in California suggested higher than expected suspension and expulsion
rates for black students in 12 major American cities (Skiba, 12). One could argue that the
overrepresentation of African Americans is more reflective of an overrepresentation
based on social economic status rather than race, but research by Wu et al. suggests that
even when social economic status is controlled for nonwhite students still consistently
receive significantly higher rates of suspensions than white students in all locales except
for rural senior high schools (Skiba, 12).
Convention