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context of present and often hostile experiences of everyday life. In his work on identity, Stuart
Hall observes that:
instead of thinking of identity as an already accomplished fact, which the new
cultural practices then represent, we should think, instead, of identity as a
‘production’, which is never complete, always in process, and always constituted
within, not outside, representation. (Hall 1997: 52)
Hall’s insight into the interaction between identity and representation helps to understand
the identity constructions of Arab Muslims in Jersey City after 9.11. The paradox of Muslim
women choosing to maintain their covers, despite historical passages in the Qur’an saying it is
permissible to take them off in hostile times, reflects their desire to counter what they see as the
misrepresentation of Muslim women as oppressed, docile victims who are somehow forced to
wear the hijab. The women I spoke with deeply resented this image. In nearly every interview
and interaction with Muslim women this theme came out over and over again. The changing
significance of the meaning of covering to Muslim women, in other words, demonstrates the
dynamic nature of identity and its representation in cultural practices in the present context.
Community Cohesion
On one level, the increased importance placed on religious identity, and the desire to
defend against threats from the FBI and non-Muslim community members, has led many
Muslims to withdraw from the larger society and rely almost exclusively on other Muslims in
Jersey City. In turn, this has strengthened face-to-face interaction and community ties among
them. Reflecting this trend, many Muslim women and men stated that after 9/11 they gained a
renewed sense of purpose in their roles as strong sisters and brothers of Islam. Some began
organizing discussion groups to read the Qur’an more closely and hosted social gatherings in
their homes or in quiet public sections of the park. In this way, 9/11 has served to foster stronger
in-group cohesion. One woman told me:
September 11 is terrible, terrible. But at the same time, now the sisters are
becoming stronger. We watch out for each other before. But now especially, we
get even closer. Like now, we go shopping together, we make parties together,
we do everything together. We don’t let any sister walk by herself. We take care
of each other. This is the way of Islam.
Certainly, it is true that the Muslim community in Jersey City has become more insular.
At the same time, however, several factors threaten the strength or cohesion of this group. One
Convention