The primary independent variable of interest is an unweighted summed scale measuring
the objective physical quality of the school. Twenty-five dichotomous (or dichotomized)
measures that directly pertain to physical conditions and school cleanliness have been combined
(alpha=.69). Specific questions assess whether or not there is/are: trash on the front hallway
floors, overflowing trashcan in hallways, broken lights in hallways, graffiti on hallway
walls/doors/ceilings, graffiti on lockers in hallway, chipped pain in hallway, hallway ceilings are
in disrepair, hallway floor and walls appear clean, graffiti on bathroom walls and ceilings,
graffiti on bathroom stall doors/walls, trash on the bathroom floor, overflowing trashcans in
bathroom, doors on all bathroom stalls, classroom ceiling in disrepair, broken lights in
classroom, graffiti on classroom walls/ceilings/doors, graffiti on classroom desks, trash on
classroom floor, overflowing trashcan in the classroom, classroom floor and walls appear clean,
bars on classroom windows, classroom windows are broken, there is litter in area around school,
there is graffiti in area around school, and there are boarded up buildings in area around school.
These measures have been recoded such that higher values indicate better school conditions.
Clearly, this scale directly addresses the kind of school quality Kozol (1991) describes
throughout his description of the schools he toured, which he contends is related to student
achievement. Some measures were left out because it could not be determined whether they
indicated desirable or undesirable conditions. For example, one of the unused measures indicated
whether or not there were posters or class material on the classroom windows. On one hand, this
would indicate that the classroom may be a lively learning environment; however, it may also
inadvertently block out sunlight that would otherwise make the classroom more inviting.
Additional controls include family socioeconomic status, as reported by the parent;
respondents’ educational expectations and occupational aspirations (professional vs. non-
5
Convention