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Scarce Water, Abundant Oil: Resources and Conflict in the Middle East and North Africa
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28
According to the World Resources Institute, Gaza, in the Palestinian territories, is ranked second from the bottom in terms
of per capita fresh water availability, after Kuwait, and Yemen is ranked ninth from the bottom, after Gaza,Bahrain, Jordan and 5 major oil-producing states. See,
www.earthtrends.wri.org
. As for government effectiveness, the
World Bank, in its, Worldwide Governance Indicators, ranks the West Bank/Gaza Strip third from the bottom, and Yemen, fifth from the bottom of 19 countries of the MENA.
29
Lowi, Water and Power, pp. 118-32.
30
See, for example, Thomas Stauffer, “The Price of Peace: the Spoils of War,” American-Arab Affairs, no.1, (summer
1982). While it appears that there had been some activity around the Wazzani springs that flow into the Upper Jordan, and are located in then Israel-controlled South Lebanon, there has been no evidence to confirm the suggestion that the Litani waters were a strategic objective of the invasion. See, for example, A. Wolf, “’Hydrostrategic’ Territory in the Jordan Basin: Water, War, and Arab-Israeli Peace Negotiations” in, Hussein Amery and Aaron Wolf, eds., Water in the Middle East: A Geography of Peace, Austin: University of Texas Press, 2000
31
About 40 percent of the groundwater which Israel consumes and one-quarter of the state’s sustainable annual water yield
originates in rainfall over the western slopes of the West Bank, and are drawn by drilling inside pre-1967 Israel proper from the same aquifer system that contains the water reserves for the West Bank. See,
32
3
Lowi, Water and Power, pp. ; John Waterbury, The Nile Basin: National Determinants of Collective Action, Yale University Press, 2002.
33
Some large n quantitative studies of resource scarcity and conflict confirm this observation (Wenche Hauge & Tanja
Ellingsen, “Beyond Environmental Scarcity: Causal Pathways to Conflict,” Journal of Peace Research 35:3, 1998, pp.299-317), while others do not ( Theisen 2006, op.cit.).
34
3
Mohammed Hatem el-Qadhi, “Thirst for Water and Development Leads to Conflict in Yemen,” Choices, United Nations Development Program, vol.12, no.1, (March 2003), pp.13-14.
35
See, for example, the conflicts between al-Marzuh and Quradah in, ibid.
According to Roudi-Fahimi, et.al. (supra., fn. 18), in 2002, 69% of the population of Yemen had access to safe drinking water (Oman is the only country in the region with a lower percentage), and only 38% of the population had access to adequate sanitation; in Iraq, the country with the next lowest proportion, 79% had access to adequate sanitation.
36
3
See, for example, Abdellah Hammoudi, “Substance and Relation: Water Distribution in the Dra Valley,” in Ann E. Mayer ed., Property, Social Structure, and Law in the Middle East State University of New York Press, 1985, pp.
37
The World Health Organization recommends a minimum of 100 litres of water per person per day, while Palestinians on
the West Bank and Gaza Strip consume 70 litres per person per day. In contrast, Israelis, both inside Israel and on settlements in the West Bank, consume 348 litres of water per person per day.
38
Bernard Haykel, “Differing Saudi Perspectives on Oil Wealth and its Effect on Society,” talk given at the Transregional
Institute of the Contemporary Middle East, North Africa, and Central Asia, Princeton University, October 6, 2006.
39
United States Department of Energy: www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/algeria.html
40
4
See, Watts, Michael, "Black Gold, White Heat," in Geographies of Resistance, Steve Pile, Michael Keith, eds., London:
Routledge, 1997
41
Mordechai Abir, Saudi Arabia in the Oil Era. Regime and Elites: Conflict and Collaboration, London: Croom Helm,
1988
42
While it is true that we need water to survive in a way that we do not need oil, it is the case that oil does contribute to
agriculture – hence livelihoods – immensely through the mechanization of tractors, the production of fertilizers, and such.
43
“Resource Curse? Governmentality, Oil and Power in the Niger Delta, Nigeria,” Geopolitics 2004, pp.50-80.
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28
According to the World Resources Institute, Gaza, in the Palestinian territories, is ranked second from the bottom in terms
of per capita fresh water availability, after Kuwait, and Yemen is ranked ninth from the bottom, after Gaza,
Bahrain, Jordan and 5 major oil-producing states. See,
. As for government effectiveness, the
World Bank, in its, Worldwide Governance Indicators, ranks the West Bank/Gaza Strip third from the bottom, and Yemen,
fifth from the bottom of 19 countries of the MENA.
29
Lowi, Water and Power, pp. 118-32.
30
See, for example, Thomas Stauffer, “The Price of Peace: the Spoils of War,” American-Arab Affairs, no.1, (summer
1982). While it appears that there had been some activity around the Wazzani springs that flow into the Upper Jordan, and
are located in then Israel-controlled South Lebanon, there has been no evidence to confirm the suggestion that the Litani
waters were a strategic objective of the invasion. See, for example, A. Wolf, “’Hydrostrategic’ Territory in the Jordan
Basin: Water, War, and Arab-Israeli Peace Negotiations” in, Hussein Amery and Aaron Wolf, eds., Water in the Middle
East: A Geography of Peace, Austin: University of Texas Press, 2000
31
About 40 percent of the groundwater which Israel consumes and one-quarter of the state’s sustainable annual water yield
originates in rainfall over the western slopes of the West Bank, and are drawn by drilling inside pre-1967 Israel proper from
the same aquifer system that contains the water reserves for the West Bank. See,
32
3
Lowi, Water and Power, pp. ; John Waterbury, The Nile Basin: National Determinants of Collective Action, Yale
University Press, 2002.
33
Some large n quantitative studies of resource scarcity and conflict confirm this observation (Wenche Hauge & Tanja
Ellingsen, “Beyond Environmental Scarcity: Causal Pathways to Conflict,” Journal of Peace Research 35:3, 1998, pp.
299-317), while others do not ( Theisen 2006, op.cit.).
34
3
Mohammed Hatem el-Qadhi, “Thirst for Water and Development Leads to Conflict in Yemen,” Choices, United Nations
Development Program, vol.12, no.1, (March 2003), pp.13-14.
35
See, for example, the conflicts between al-Marzuh and Quradah in, ibid.
According to Roudi-Fahimi, et.al. (supra., fn. 18), in 2002, 69% of the population of Yemen had access to safe
drinking water (Oman is the only country in the region with a lower percentage), and only 38% of the population had access
to adequate sanitation; in Iraq, the country with the next lowest proportion, 79% had access to adequate sanitation.
36
3
See, for example, Abdellah Hammoudi, “Substance and Relation: Water Distribution in the Dra Valley,” in Ann E. Mayer
ed., Property, Social Structure, and Law in the Middle East State University of New York Press, 1985, pp.
37
The World Health Organization recommends a minimum of 100 litres of water per person per day, while Palestinians on
the West Bank and Gaza Strip consume 70 litres per person per day. In contrast, Israelis, both inside Israel and on
settlements in the West Bank, consume 348 litres of water per person per day.
38
Bernard Haykel, “Differing Saudi Perspectives on Oil Wealth and its Effect on Society,” talk given at the Transregional
Institute of the Contemporary Middle East, North Africa, and Central Asia, Princeton University, October 6, 2006.
39
United States Department of Energy: www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/algeria.html
40
4
See, Watts, Michael, "Black Gold, White Heat," in Geographies of Resistance, Steve Pile, Michael Keith, eds., London:
Routledge, 1997
41
Mordechai Abir, Saudi Arabia in the Oil Era. Regime and Elites: Conflict and Collaboration, London: Croom Helm,
1988
42
While it is true that we need water to survive in a way that we do not need oil, it is the case that oil does contribute to
agriculture – hence livelihoods – immensely through the mechanization of tractors, the production of fertilizers, and such.
43
“Resource Curse? Governmentality, Oil and Power in the Niger Delta, Nigeria,” Geopolitics 2004, pp.50-80.
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