Publication Type: Conference Paper/Unpublished Manuscript
Abstract: Research going back to the 1970s has shown that use of marijuana is less likely than other drug use to lead to dependence (Grinspoon and Bakalar 1997; Hall and Pacula 2003; Mack and Joy 2001; Zimmer & Morgan 1997). However, a number of studies have challenged that view in the past decade. Most recently, the published results of two national surveys indicate that dependence on marijuana, as measured by DSM-IV criteria, rose significantly between 1991/1992 and 2001/2002 (Compton et al. 2004). In this paper we raise critical questions about official definitions and methods of measuring marijuana dependence, particularly those of large-scale surveys. We argue that many claims made in such studies are not reflected in the actual experiences of users. We also argue that existing research has yet to recognize the use of marijuana blunts (cigars in which the tobacco filler has been replaced with marijuana). This is important because the nicotine in cigar shells may affect the dependence potential of this method of marijuana use. As support for our arguments we offer qualitative data from interviews with 89 marijuana blunt smokers.

Publication Type: Conference Paper/Unpublished Manuscript
Review Method: Peer Reviewed
Abstract: Monitoring and Blunting Coping Styles as Moderators of Fear Appeal Effects
Over 50 years of fear appeal research still leaves us uncertain as to the conditions under which fear may effectively lead to adaptive attitude and behavior change. Theoretical emphasis has been placed on the relative weighting of threat and efficacy perceptions to understand adaptive versus maladaptive action (e.g., Rogers, 1975, Witte, 1992). While these perceptions are clearly important for the evocation of fear and potential responses, no fear appeal model based solely on these concepts is particularly well-supported by empirical research (Boster & Mongeau, 1984; Eagly & Chaiken, 1993; Mongeau, 1998; Witte, 1994). Surprisingly, though emotions are generally considered a mechanism to cope for the environment (e.g., Lazarus, 1991), fear most especially, extant research has not considered how coping style might impact the effects of fear arousal on information processing and message acceptance.
Monitoring and blunting coping styles are believed to reflect the degree to which people seek out or avoid information when confronting threatening situations (Miller, 1987). A number of studies investigating the effect of monitoring and blunting in clinical settings conclude that monitors tend to experience more anxiety during medical procedures, tend to respond better to more information, and pay more attention to preventative health behaviors (Miller, 1991). However, unanswered questions include how the effects of a message designed to evoke anxiety or fear might be processed differently by monitors versus blunters and to what effect. Stated differently, perhaps adaptive versus maladaptive reactions to fear appeals is a function not just of perceived severity weighed against perceived efficacy, but of coping style triggered in the face of threatening information. In considering coping style in the context of fear appeal exposure, we posit two hypotheses, noting first that monitoring and blunting are not considered opposite ends of the same scale, but rather two distinct coping styles.
First as monitors desire information and blunters avoid it, we would expect a positive correlation between monitoring and message processing depth, but a negative association between blunting and processing depth (H1). Second, whereas monitors and blunters should have comparable reactions under conditions of low fear arousal, we would expect that under conditions of greater fear arousal, monitors would have a more positive response to the message but blunters would have a more negative one.
Method
Of 320 city residents handed a survey ostensibly to examine reactions to information about diabetes, 290 were returned completed. Respondents¡¦ mean age was 44.78 years (SD = 14.65); 59% were female, 41Invalid or incomplete multibyte or wide characterale. After completing demographic and perceived knowledge (ƒÑ = .92) and relevance (ƒÑ = .86) items for several health topics including diabetes, respondents read a message about diabetes designed as a mild fear appeal. The message contained information about prevalence and risk factors for diabetes, the symptoms and health complications associated with type 2 diabetes, and the steps people can take to protect their health (i.e., health diet, exercise, and get tested). Participants then completed a depth of message processing scale (ƒÑ = .94), a biased processing measure (ƒÑ = .82), attitude and behavioral intention measures for a dieting (ƒÑ = .78 and ƒÑ = .68) and getting a blood test (ƒÑ = .83 and testing ƒÑ = .79), fear arousal during message exposure (ƒÑ = .93), monitoring and blunting scales (ƒÑ = .77 and ƒÑ = .84 respectively), and family and personal history of diabetes.
Analyses were based on ANCOVAs for which the predictor variables ¡V fear, monitoring, and blunting ¡V were dichotomized based on median splits. Relevant control variables were taken into consideration, including sex, age, education level, race, current health, topic relevance, perceived knowledge, family history, and prior diabetes screening.
Results
H1: Monitoring, Blunting, and Message Processing
Partial correlations indicated a positive relationship between monitoring coping style and message processing depth (r = .14, p < .05, n = 271), and a negative association between blunting and processing depth (r = -.16, p < .01, n = 271). These results confirm H1 and serve as an indication of the validity of the coping style and message processing measures. Of note, blunting was positively correlated with biased processing (r = .12, p = .05, n = 271), suggesting that as expected, blunters engaged in cognitive techniques to discount threatening information. There was no association between monitoring and biased processing (r = -.01, ns).
H2: Coping Style, Attitudes, and Behavioral Intentions
Two sets of dependent measures were included in the survey: attitudes and behavioral intentions toward dieting behavior and getting a blood test to possibly diagnose diabetes. All dependent measures were subjected to Monitoring (low vs. high) x Blunting (low vs. high) x Fear (low vs. high) ANCOVA analysis. For three of the four analyses (all but attitude toward getting a blood test), a main effect for fear was evidenced (all ps „T .05). For both behavioral intention measures, the high fear group was more persuaded. However, for attitude toward dieting, the low fear group was more persuaded. A main effect for blunting was identified only for attitude toward blood testing (p = .05) for which low blunters had more positive attitudes than high blunters. No main effect for monitoring was revealed in the analyses.
For three of the four analyses (all but attitude toward dieting), the expected Monitoring x Fear interaction was evidenced (ps „T .05). In all cases, the high and low monitors differed little when experiencing low fear. However, when aroused, high monitors indicated stronger attitudes towards getting a blood test and intentions to get a blood test and diet relative to low monitors.
Counter to hypothesis, no Fear x Blunting interactions proved significant. However, a 3-way Fear x Monitoring x Blunting interaction appeared in two of the analyses: attitude toward blood testing and intentions to diet (ps < .05). For blood testing attitude, the interaction suggesting that the fear x monitoring interaction was particularly strong for the low blunters. Conversely, for intentions to diet, the fear x monitoring interaction was particularly strong for the high blunters.
In sum, these findings suggest that coping style ¡V monitoring in particular -- is a potentially important factor to consider when investigating the persuasive effects of fear appeals. Though no conclusive claims can be drawn a consistent pattern of high monitors responding particularly well when more fearful suggests this to be a variable worth including in future research on fear appeals. Additional findings focused on processing style and models of the relationships reported here will be included in the completed version of this paper.
References
Boster, F. J., & Mongeau, P. (1984). Fear-arousing persuasive messages. In R. N. Bostrom (Ed.), Communication Yearbook 8 (pp. 330-375). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Eagly, A. H., & Chaiken, S. (1993). The psychology of attitudes. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace Javanovich.
Gleicher, F., & Petty, R. E. (1992). Expectations of reassurance influence the nature of fear-stimulated attitude change. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 28, 86-100.
Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Emotion and adaptation. New York: Oxford University Press.
Miller, S. M. (1987). Monitoring and blunting: Validation of a qustionnaire to assess styles of information seeking under threat. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 345-353.
Miller, S. M. (1991). Monitoring and blunting in the face of threat: Implications for adaptation and health. In L. Montada, S. H. Filipp, & M. J. Lerner (Eds.), Life crises and experiences of loss in adulthood. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Erlbaum.
Mongeau, P. (1998). Another look at fear-arousing persuasive appeals. In M. Allen & R. W. Preiss (Eds.), Persuasion: Advances through meta-analysis (pp. 53-68). Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press.
Rogers, R. W. (1975). A protection motivation theory of fear appeals and attitude change. The Journal of Psychology, 91, 93-114.
Witte, K. (1992). Putting the fear back into fear appeals: The extended parallel process model. Communication Monographs, 59, 329-349.

Publication Type: Abstract
Abstract: Introduction: EMS scene time in the setting of major trauma has come under intense scrutiny; however, the impact of response time on outcome following blunt trauma remains ill-defined. We conducted this study to measure the strength of association between response time and outcome following blunt trauma.

Methods: This is a retrospective case-control study. All victims of blunt trauma were eligible. Data collection included demographic data, ISS, paramedic response time, scene time and outcome. Patients in asystole on EMS arrival were excluded. Subgroup analysis was performed on patients with an ISS of greater than 15. The composite endpoint of ED death, immediate transfer to operating room, or admission to the intensive care unit was used. Statistical analysis was performed using chi-square and multiple regression.

Results: A total of 534 patients were studied, with 87 admitted to the ICU, 55 going directly to the OR, and 20 died in the ED. An additional 11 patients died during hospitalization. Mean response time was 8.1 minutes for those who met the composite endpoint versus 7.8 for those who did not. (p=NS) There were 176 patients with an ISS greater than 15, of whom 145 survived and 31 died. Mean response time was 7.3 minutes for those who survived versus 8.2 for those who died. (p=NS) Mean scene time was 8.2 minutes for those who survived versus 8.6 for those who died. (p=NS) Approximately 5% of survivors and 58% of those who died were intubated in the field. (p<0.001) The composite endpoint significantly correlated with endotracheal intubation, advanced age, ISS, hospital length of stay, but not with response or scene time.

Conclusions: Paramedic response time had little bearing on the composite endpoint of ED death, immediate transfer to operating room, or admission to the intensive care unit in patients with blunt trauma. Outcome depended more on patient age and ISS. Performance of intubation in the field did not affect paramedic scene time in the group of patients with an ISS greater than 15.

Publication Type: Conference Paper/Unpublished Manuscript
Review Method: Peer Reviewed
Abstract: The literature exploring the language of international politics has tended to emphasize metaphor over other tropes. This emphasis has a sound foundation, as metaphor, conceived as understanding one thing in terms of another, is central to human cognition

Publication Type: Paper (prepared oral presentation)
Review Method: Peer Reviewed
Abstract: Blunt or Sharp Instruments? Measuring Affect toward Ethnic and Racial Groups in Contemporary America

David O. Sears, University of California, Los Angeles (sears@issr.ucla.edu)

Victoria Savalei, University of British Columbia

Christopher Tarman, University of California, Los Angeles

Feeling thermometers are widely used in political psychology to measure affect toward social groups. They are, however, particularly transparent, and perhaps even blatant, measures of prejudice. The question of possible social desirability biases is often raised, promoting use of less obvious measures such as implicit prejudice, symbolic racism, or racial resentment. Nevertheless, mean differences in affect are known to have significant value in predicting a variety of political dependent variables. We look at them from a new perspective, assessing patterns of individuals’ responses across target groups rather than differences across individual respondents. The standard expectation from social psychology is that most respondents will show ingroup favoritism, rating their own ethnic ingroup more favorably than ethnic outgroups. In pilot research we have found that another pattern is more common: an even-handed response in which all groups are rated equally, presumably in an effort to resist political psychologists’ efforts to identify the respondent’s prejudices. In this paper we broaden our inquiry. We examine two series of surveys, the American National Election Studies and the Los Angeles County Surveys. We test surveys from different eras, the 1960's as well as the contemporary era. We also look at respondents from different ethnic groups. As a result we consider changes in the patterns of responding over time and over target groups. We test several hypotheses about what kinds of respondents are most likely to show the patterns of ingroup favoritism as opposed to even-handedness across target groups.