Publication Type: Poster
Abstract: This paper argues that the current cognitive skill-training approach in correctional settings has overlooked cognitive understanding, which represents another important cognitive intervention for offenders. The cognitive skills training typically involves teaching the clients to identify, appraise, and resolve interpersonal problems, and to overcome their cognitive skill deficits, such as poor self-regulation skills, lack of assertiveness, and an inability to think consequentially or to take another person’s perspective (e.g., Foster & Crain, 2002; Platt & Husband, 1993; Smith & Faubert, 1990).
The idea of cognitive skills, however, needs to be differentiated from the notion of cognitive understanding, which refers to the schemas that accurately comprehend one’s interpersonal experiences. Individuals may have the ability to take another’s perspective but lack the capacity to understand their experiences. For example, one type of correctional clients’ cognitive struggles and emotional anguish involves their inability to make sense of their experiences of sexual, emotional or physical abuse inflicted on them when they were too young to defend themselves. The social/cognitive skill training has not addressed this type of cognitive deficiency.

Publication Type: Conference Paper/Unpublished Manuscript
Abstract: The current political environment, specifically No Child Left Behind, has given sociologists, educators and those interested in the environment of the public schools added impetus to do several things. First, it is critical to bring into the pedagogical discussion the research from related disciplines. Sociologists have studied the emergence of inequality in small groups for decades. This has become the base in our study of collaborative learning groups. We will summarize the current research and describe the on-going efforts in this area. Second, it is equally critical that we operationalize the theoretical base related to cognitive development, most especially the work of Piaget, Arlin, and other cognitive psychologists. This operational definition focuses on the outward and visible sign, that of cognitive behavior, as it relates to collaborative learning groups. We will discuss the current status of that research and the planned steps to continue both validation and reliability checks for the coding. Third, the relationship between the emergence of inequality, cognitive behavior, and the nature of the task provides the basis for prediction about the effectiveness of collaborative learning groups and about ways to make collaborative learning groups more effective in producing learning in individuals.

Publication Type: Conference Paper/Unpublished Manuscript
Abstract: This paper will discuss the concept of Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI), highlighting the ambiguities surrounding symptom identification, diagnosis and treatment. I explore the issue of beneficence, questioning whether the diagnostic entity of MCI does more harm than good by contrasting the medical and social constructionist models of illness. I argue that the biomedical community’s effort to medicalize the aging brain has been more harmful than helpful, as it has led to the labeling and stigmatization of individuals and their loved ones. Furthermore, I maintain that this recent push to medicalize the aging mind largely due to the efforts of the select few who stand to reap enormous economic rewards. I support this postulate by examining the highly profitable anti-aging market, exposing the unethical social exchange relationship enjoyed by drug companies, academic researchers, and clinicians. I conclude by suggesting that the cultural shift in our understanding and accepting of MCI as a diagnostic entity is not merely coincidental, but rather, concomitant to the aging explosion of the baby boom generation.

Publication Type: Conference Paper/Unpublished Manuscript

Publication Type: Conference Paper/Unpublished Manuscript
Review Method: Peer Reviewed
Abstract: One often quoted criticism of advertising concerns the perceived effects of portrayals of super thin women on body satisfaction among young women (Posavac, Posavac & Weigel, 2001). The impact of advertising models on women's body satisfaction leads to greater concern due to the link between body satisfaction, self-esteem and eating disorders (Cash, 1990; Irving, 1990). Indeed, researchers have linked viewing super thin models in appearance related advertisements to increased dissatisfaction with one's own body (Harrison & Cantor, 1997; Heinberg & Thompson, 1995; Myers & Biocca, 1992). Researchers believe that processes of social comparison and cognitive dissonance are behind the effects of super thin advertising models on body satisfaction (Martin & Kennedy, 1993; Richins, 1991). The idea is that during exposure, women compare themselves to models in the advertisement and when they do not measure up, experience cognitive dissonance, which results in lower satisfaction with their own body. The purpose of this study is to probe deeper into the processes of social comparison and cognitive dissonance by exploring the cognitive and emotional processes engaged in young women during exposure to appearance related television advertisements. More specifically, this study seeks to isolate cognitive and emotional correlates of social comparison and cognitive dissonance.
Social comparison evoked by a television advertisement involves processing information presented in the message and activating information stored in long-term memory concerning self-appearance (Hargreaves & Tiggemann, 2002). During exposure to television advertisements attention or cognitive resources are allocated externally to the message to encode it into short-term memory (Lang, 2000). When the message encourages viewers to engage in social comparison an increase in cognitive resources allocated internally to activating information stored in long-term memory should be needed. Previous research has tried to document the occurrence of social comparison through thought listing techniques after exposure to advertisements (Hargreaves & Tiggemann, 2002). However, an increase in allocating cognitive resources internally retrieval of long-term memory could be a cognitive correlate of social comparison and can be measured during exposure to advertisements. According to Lang (1995), heart rate speeds up during an increase in cognitive resources to internal mental activities. Social comparison should occur during appearance related advertisements featuring super-thin models but not during non-appearance related advertisements. This leads to the following hypothesis:
H1: Heart rate will be faster during exposure to appearance related television advertisements compared to non-appearance related advertisements.
Cognitive dissonance has been defined as a negative emotional state resulting from not measuring up to an ideal standard (Richins, 1991). Researchers have yet to document the emotional state associated with cognitive dissonance experienced during exposure to television advertisements featuring super thin models. However, by definition, cognitive dissonance should be correlated with an increase in negative emotional valence and arousal. Previous research has demonstrated that skin conductance and facial EMG, specifically Corrugator muscle activity, can be used to index arousal and negative emotional valence (Dawson, Schell & Filion, 1990; Eckman, 1993). Women who have lower state body satisfaction should experience greater cognitive dissonance than women with higher body satisfaction. Thus,
H2: Skin conductance and Corrugator muscle activity will be greater during exposure to appearance related television advertisements for women with lower body satisfaction compared to women with higher body satisfaction.
Methodology
Independent Variables
Social comparison is conceptually defined as the act of comparing one's self to a desirable target. Social comparison will be manipulated by presenting participants with appearance and non-appearance related television advertisements. Appearance related advertisements feature appearance related products and have desirable female models in them that represent society's thin ideal. These ads will emphasize the appearance of the model as being desirable. Non-appearance related advertisements will be for products that are not related to physical appearance and will not feature super-thin female models.
Cognitive dissonance is conceptualized as a state that results from failing to measure up to an ideal standard. Cognitive dissonance will be manipulated by comparing women who have low state body satisfaction to women who have high state body satisfaction.
Dependent Variables
Attention is conceptually defined as cognitive resources that are invested in information processing. Attention will be measured by obtaining participants' heart rate. Heart rate will be measured for a five-second baseline prior to exposure to each advertisement and time-locked to exposure to the advertisements.
Arousal is conceptually defined as a dimension of emotion that reflects how calm or excited a person feels. Arousal will be measured based on levels of skin conductance. Skin conductance will be measured for a five-second baseline prior to exposure to each advertisement and time-locked to exposure to the advertisements.
Emotional valence is conceptually defined as a dimension of emotion related to how positive or negative a person feels. Emotional valence will be measured by facial EMG. Specifically, this study is interested in the experience of negative emotional valence so Corrugator muscle activity will be measured. Corrugator activity will also be measured for a five-second baseline prior to exposure to each advertisement and time-locked to exposure to the advertisements.
Design
The design of this experiment is a 2 (Social Comparison) X 2 (Cognitive Dissonance) X 3 (Order) mixed model. Social comparison is a within subjects variable. All participants will see the appearance-related (social comparison) and non-appearance related (no social comparison) advertisements. Cognitive dissonance is a between subjects variable having to do with whether participants have high or low state body satisfaction. Participants will be randomly assigned to one of three stimulus tape orders.
Stimuli
Stimulus messages will be three appearance related and three non-appearance related 60-second television advertisements taped off-air. Taping will be done during programs for which college women are in the target demographic. Stimulus messages will be pre-tested to assure they result in equivalent levels of message involvement during exposure. Stimulus messages will be edited into three random orders.
Participants and Procedure
Prior to the experiment a survey measuring body satisfaction will be administered to 200 college women enrolled in communication courses. Forty women with very high and forty women with very low body satisfaction will be contacted to participate in the experiment. Participants will complete the experiment one at a time in a psychophysiology lab. Informed consent will be obtained from all participants. The researcher will prep participants for collection of physiological data and then will give instructions for completing self-report measures. Self-report measures will include message involvement, social comparison and cognitive dissonance. Participants will be given the opportunity to ask questions and then will be shown the advertisements. Participants will complete self-report measures in between each advertisement. After completing self-report measures for the last advertisement, participants will be thanked and dismissed.
Time Table
Data collection for this experiment will be completed in March. Data analysis will be completed in April.

References

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Dawson, M.E., Schell, A.M. & Filion, D.L. (1990). The electrodermal system. In J.T. Cacioppo & L.G. Tassinary (Eds.) Principles of Psychophysiology: Physical, social, and inferential elements, (pp. 295-324). New York: Cambridge University Press.

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Harrison, K. & Cantor, J. (1997). The Relationship Between Media Consumption and Eating Disorders. Journal of Communication, 47, 40-67.

Hargreaves, D. & Tiggemann, M. (2002). The Effect of Television Commercial on Mood and Body Dissatisfaction: The role of appearance-schema activation. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 21 (3), 287-308.

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Lang, A. (2000). The Limited Capacity Model of Mediated Message Processing. Journal of Communication, 50 (1), 46-70.

Martin, M.C. & Kennedy, P.F. (1993). Advertising and Social Comparison: Consequences for female pre-adolescents and adolescents. Psychology and Marketing, 10, 513-530.

Posavac, H.D., Posavac, S.S. & Weigel, R.G. (2001). Reducing the Impact of Media Images on Women at Risk for Body Image Disturbance: Three targeted interventions. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 20 (3), 324-340.

Richins, M.L. (1991). Social Comparison and the Idealized Images of Advertising. Journal of Consumer Research, 18, 71-83.